Relief Formation in Geothermal Areas of the Kuril-Kamchatka Region: Geological Conditions and Geomorphological Effects

The results of long-term geological and geomorphological field work on the Kuril Islands (Kunashir, Iturup, and Paramushir islands) and Kamchatka Peninsula have shown significant activity of denudation processes in thermal fields and surrounding areas, among which landslides and erosion are the most common. The laboratory studies indicate that gas-hydrothermal alteration of rocks in geothermal regions results in a significant change in their composition, weakening and decrease in strength. These factors contribute to the gravitational displacement in slopes, often with blocking of river valleys. Slope displacement and failure is additionally activated by the thermal water discharges and soils heating. Geothermal areas often have numerous traces of debris flows, often non-seasonal. The activation of linear erosion on exposed slopes can result in the formation of badlands areas. Watercourses draining thermal fields can carry away significant amounts of suspended and dissolved material. It leads to an increase in denudation rates and the formation of erosion-denudation funnels and denudation basins in areas of hydrothermal explosions. It also causes an abnormal expansion of watercourse valleys within thermal fields compared to background areas. Our observations allow us to draw conclusions about surface deformation in geothermal fields, which is caused by the natural migration of thermal fluids and the exploitation of thermal deposits. Obviously, there is need to continue research of the geothermal areas at the Kuril-Kamchatka region using a wide range of geological, geomorphological and cartographic methods, including the innovative technologies such as radar interferometry.

1. Baldina E.A., Lebedeva E.V., Anikina N.V. Activity of geomorphological processes on the slopes of river valleys in the conditions of gas-hydrothermal occurrences (based on multi-temporal images and DEM analysis). InterCarto. InterGIS., 2023, vol. 29, pp. 272–287. (In Russ.). https://doi.org/10.35595/2414-9179-2023-1-29-272-287

2. Browne P.R.L., Lawless J.L. Characteristics of hydrothermal eruptions, with examples from New Zealand and elsewhere. Earth-Sci. Rev., 2001, vol. 52, pp. 299–331.

3. Chernov M.S., Ermolinskii A.B., Sokolov V.N., Razgulina O.V. Features of slope processes activation in clay soil massifs of thermal fields of Southern Kamchatka. In Sergeevskie chtenia. Fundamental’nye i prikladnye voprosy inzhenernoi geodinamiki: materialy godichnoi sessii Nauchnogo soveta RAN po problemam geoekologii, inzhenernoi geologii i gidrogeologii. T. 24 [Sergeev Readings. Fundamental and Applied Issues of Engineering Geodynamics: Proc. of the Annual Session of the Scientific Council of the Russian Academy of Sciences on the Problems of Geoecology, Engineering Geology, and Hydrogeology. Vol. 24]. Voznesenskii E.A., Osipov V.I., Eds. Moscow: Geoinfo Publ., 2023, pp. 77–80. (In Russ.).

4. Dvigalo V.N., Melekestsev I.V. Geological and geomorphological consequences of catastrophic rockfall and rockfall — landslides processes in the Kamchatka Valley of Geysers (according to aerial photogrammetry). Vulkanol. Seismol., 2009, no. 5, pp. 24–37. (In Russ.).

5. Frolova J.V. Skal’nye grunty i metody ikh laboratornogo izucheniya [Rocks and Methods of Their Laboratory Study]. Moscow: KDU Publ., 2015. 220 p.

6. Frolova J.V., Ladygin V.M., Rychagov S.N. Engineering and geological features of hydrothermal-metasomatic rocks of Kamchatka and the Kuril Islands. Inzh. Geol., 2011, no. 3, pp. 40–54. (In Russ.).

7. Frolova J.V., Ladygin V.M, Rychagov S.N., Zukhubaya D.Z. Effects of hydrothermal alterations on physical and mechanical properties of rocks in the Kuril-Kamchatka island arc. Eng. Geol., 2014, vol. 183, pp. 80–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2014.10.011

8. Frolova J.V., Gvozdeva I.P., Chernov M.S., Kuznetsov N.P. Geotechnical aspects of hydrothermal transformations of tuffaceous rocks of the Valley of Geysers (Kamchatka Peninsula). Inzh. Geol., 2015, no. 6, pp. 30–42. (In Russ.).

9. Frolova J.V., Chernov M.S., Rychagov S.N. et al. The influence of hydrothermal argillization on the physical and mechanical properties of tuffaceous rocks: a case study from the Upper Pauzhetsky thermal field, Kamchatka. Bull. Eng. Geol. Environ., 2021, vol. 80, pp. 1635–1651. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-020-02007-2

10. Frolova J.V., Zerkal O.V., Bolshakov I.E. Hydrothermal alteration of rocks as a factor of landslide development in geothermal areas of the Kuril-Kamchatka volcanoic arc. Gruntoved., 2023, no. 2, pp. 36−43. (In Russ.). https://doi.org/10.53278/2306-9139-2023-2-21-36-43

11. Hooper A., Zebker H., Segall P., Kampes B. A new method for measuring deformation on volcanoes and other natural terrains using InSAR persistent scatterers. Geoph. Res. Lett., 2004, vol. 31, no. 23, art. L23611. https://doi.org/10.1029/2004GL021737

12. Hutter G. Geothermal power generation in the World 2015-2020: Update Report. In Proc. of the Worlds Geothermal Congress 2020+1. Reykjavik, 2021. Available at: https://www.geothermal-energy.org/pdf/IGAstandard/WGC/2020/01017.pdf (accessed: 28.07.2025).

13. Kalacheva E.G. Ultra-acidic sulfate-chloride waters of volcano-hydrothermal systems of the Kuril Islands. Extended Abstract of Dr. Sci. (Geol.-Miner.) Dissertation. Novosibirsk: Siberian State Univ. of Geosystems and Technologies, 2025. 43 p.

14. Kalacheva E.G., Taran Yu.A. The role of hydrothermal systems of the Kuril Island arc in the removal of magmatic components. In Vulkanizm i svyazannye s nim protsessy: mater. XXVIII ezhegodnoi nauchn. konf., posvyashchennoi Dnyu vulkanologa [Volcanism and Related Processes: Proc. of the 28th Annual Sci. Conf. Dedicated to the Volcanologist Day]. PetropavlovskKamchatsky: IViS DVO RAN, 2017, pp. 169–172. (In Russ.).

15. Kalacheva E., Kotenko T., Voloshina E. Chemical weathering fluxes from Paramushir volcanic island (Kuril Island arc, Russia). E3S Web Conf., 2019, no. 98, art. 08007. https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/20199808007

16. Kamchatka, Kuril’skie i Komandorskie ostrova. Istoriya razvitiya rel’efa Sibiri i Dal’nego Vostoka [Kamchatka, Kuril and Commander Islands. The History of the Development of the Relief of Siberia and the Far East]. Luchitskii I.V., Ed. Moscow: Nauka Publ., 1974. 440 p.

17. Kiryukhin, A., Rutqvist J., Maguskin M. Modeling of the vertical deformations during exploitation of the Mutnovsky Geothermal Field, Kamchatka, Russia. In Proc. of the World Geothermal Congress 2015. Melbourne, 2015. Available at: https://www.geothermal-energy.org/pdf/IGAstandard/WGC/2015/22086.pdf (accessed: 28.07.2025).

18. Koros W., O’Sullivan J., Pogacnik J. et al. Variability of geotechnical properties of materials within Wairakei subsidence bowl, New Zealand. In Proc. of the 37th New Zealand Geothermal Workshop. Taupo, 2015, pp. 1–8. Lebedeva E.V. Types of impact of volcanic and post-volcanic activity on the fluvial relief. Geomorfol., 2019, no. 4, pp. 49−66. (In Russ.). https://doi.org/10.31857/S0435-42812019449-66

19. Lebedeva E.V. Gas-hydrothermal activities impact on the relief formation of river valleys geothermal zones. Geomorfol., 2022, vol. 53, no. 5, pp. 116–126. https://doi.org/10.31857/S043542812205008X

20. Lebedeva E.V., Zharkov R.V. Accumulative landforms in valleys with gas-hydrothermal occurrences (from the example of watercourses of some volcanic massifs in the Kuril-Kamchatka region). Dokl. Earth Sci., 2022, vol. 506, no. 3, pp. 7–18. https://doi.org/10.1134/S1028334X22700131

21. Lebedeva E.V., Chernomorets S.S. Debris Flow Activity and Specific Features of Debris Flow Formation in the Geysernaya River Valley (Kamchatka). Russ. J. Pacific Geol., 2024, vol. 18, no. 1, pp. S15–S27. https://doi.org/10.1134/S1819714024700179

22. Lebedeva E.V., Sugrobov V.M., Chizhova V.P., Zavadskaya A.V. The valley of the river Geysernaya (Kamchatka): hydrothermal activity and features of relief forming. Geomorfol., 2020, no. 2, pp. 60−73. (In Russ.). https://doi.org/10.31857/S0435428120020066

23. Lebedeva E.V., Baldina E.A., Medvedev A.A. Dynamics of slope processes in the Geysernaya river valley (Kamchatka) according to the data of interpretation of multi-temporal space images. Dokl. Earth Sci., 2022, vol. 507, no. 1, pp. S9–S18. https://doi.org/10.1134/S1028334X22601262

24. Lebedeva E.V., Zakharov A.L., Kotenkov A.V. Formation of terraces in a river valley with active gashydrothermal manifestations (the Geysernaya River valley, Kamchatka Peninsula as an example). Geomorfol. Paleogeogr., 2024, vol. 55, no. 3, pp. 123–145. (In Russ.). https://doi.org/10.31857/S2949178924030071

25. Lebedeva E.V., Baldina E.A., Chernomorets S.S., Kotenkov A.V. Landslide and debris flow formation in the Geysernaya River valley (Kamchatka, Russia): Causes and possibilities of potential activation. Izv. Akad. Nauk, Ser. Geogr., 2025, vol. 89, no. 4, pp. 650–668. (In Russ.).

26. Leonov V.L. The collapse and landslide that occurred on January 4, 2014 in the Valley of Geysers, Kamchatka, and their consequences. Vestn. KRAUNTs. Nauki Zemle, 2014, vol. 23, no. 1, pp. 7−20. (In Russ.).

27. Loche M., Scaringi G. Temperature and shear-rate effects in two pure clays: Possible implications for clay landslides. Results Eng., 2023, vol. 20, art. 101647. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rineng.2023.101647

28. Lund J.W., Toth A.N. Direct utilization of geothermal energy 2020 worldwide review. In Proc. of the World Geothermal Congress 2020+1. Reykjavik, 2021. Available at: https://www.geothermal-energy.org/pdf/IGAstandard/WGC/2020/01018.pdf (accessed: 28.07.2025).

29. Melekestsev I.V. Vulkanizm i rel’efoobrazovanie [Volcanism and Relief Formation]. Moscow: Nauka Publ., 1980. 212 p.

30. Pinegina T.K., Delemen’ I.F., Droznin V.A., Kalacheva E.G., Chirkov S.A., Melekestsev I.V., Dvigalo V.N., Leonov V.L., Seliverstov N.I. Kamchatka Valley of Geysers after the catastrophe on 3 June 2007. Vestn. DVO RAN, 2008, no. 1, pp. 33−44. (In Russ.).

31. Romero J.E., Polacci M., Watt S. et al. Volcanic lateral collapse processes in mafic arc edifices: a review of their driving processes, types and consequences. Front. Earth Sci., 2021, no. 9. https://doi.org/10.3389/feart.2021.639825

32. Rouwet D., Sandri L., Marzocchi W. et al. Recognizing and tracking volcanic hazards related to non-magmatic unrest: a review. J. Appl. Volcanol., 2014, vol. 17, no. 3, pp. 1–17.

33. Scaringi G., Loche М. A thermo-hydro-mechanical approach to soil slope stability under climate change. Geomorph., 2022, vol. 401, art. 108108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2022.108108

34. Shirshova V.Yu., Baldina E.A., Lebedeva E.V. The experience of using the differential interferometry method to determine the displacements of the Earth’s surface in the Uzon-Geysernaya volcano-tectonic depression according to Sentinel-1A data for 2017−2022. Sovrem. Probl. Distants. Zondir. Zemli Kosm., 2023, vol. 20, no. 4, pp. 133−146. (In Russ.). https://doi.org/10.21046/2070-7401-2023-20-4-133-146

35. Shkolnyi D.I., Tsyplenkov A.S., Lebedeva E.V., Efimova L.E. Intra-annual changes in runoff, sediment yield and dissolved load of the Geysernaya River. In Vulkanizm i svyazannye s nim protsessy: mater. XXVIII ezhegodnoi nauchn. konf., posvyashchennoi Dnyu vulkanologa [Volcanism and Related Processes: Proc. of the 28th Annual Sci. Conf. Dedicated to the Volcanologist Day]. PetropavlovskKamchatsky: IViS DVO RAN, 2025, pp. 398–401. (In Russ.).

36. Sugrobov V.M., Sugrobova N.G., Droznin V.A., Karpov G.A., Leonov V.L. Zhemchuzhina Kamchatki − Dolina Geyzerov [The Pearl of Kamchatka is the Valley of Geisers]. Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky: Kamchatpress Publ., 2009. 108 p.

37. Voight B. Causes of landslides: Conventional factors and special considerations for geothermal sites and volcanic regions. Trans.- Geotherm. Resour. Counc., 1992, vol. 16, pp. 529–533.

38. Vulkanizm, gidrotermal’nyi protsess i rudoobrazovanie [Volcanism, Hydrothermal Process and Ore Formation]. Naboko S.I., Ed. Moscow: Nedra Publ., 1974. 264 p.

39. White P.J., Lawless J.V., Terzaghi S., Okada W. Advances in subsidence modelling of exploited geothermal fields. In Proc. of the World Geothermal Congress 2005. Antalya, 2005. Available at: https://www.geothermalenergy.org/pdf/IGAstandard/WGC/2005/0222.pdf (accessed: 28.07.2025).

40. Zerkal O.V., Gvozdeva I.P. Landslide activity and landslide hazard in Geyser Valley (Kamchatka Peninsula, Russia). In Natural hazards and risk research In Russia: Innovation and discovery In Russian science and engineering. vol. 1. Springer, 2019, pp. 317–344.