Based on the State reports On the State and Use of Mineral Resources of the Russian Federation, the article identifies the current interregional differentiation and dynamics of the extractive industry in 2005–2022. Statistical, comparative-geographical methods and computer modeling were used in the study. It is shown that Russia was losing its position in the global mineral resource complex at the beginning of the 21st century. Unlike other commodity-producing powers, Russia is underutilizing its mineral resource potential for almost all types of minerals. A high level of regional specialization in the extraction of certain types of resources has been revealed. More than 2/3 of the national production of each of the 19 types of mineral raw materials is concentrated in only one region, which determines the vulnerability of regional economies to global market conditions. Krasnoyarsk Krai, Zabaikalsky Krai and Murmansk Oblast are distinguished by the maximum variety of mineral resources being developed. The Russian mineral resource space has been dynamically reformatted during the period under study. Oil and gas production has become more dispersed. The average volume of production at the largest oil fields decreased by almost a third, and gas fields by 40%. The oil and gas industry is characterized by directional shifts to Eastern Siberia and the Far East, as well as offshore areas. The use of the proposed by the author indicator “production temperature conditions” made it possible to quantify the degree of “cooling” of oil production conditions in 2022 compared to 2005. During the period under study, non-ferrous metal production was redistributed in waves between the regions of eastern Russia. In general, the extractive industry in the 21st century maintained the trend of moving north and east, characteristic of the entire Soviet period, with the “east” becoming more and more easterly, and the “north” becoming more and more northerly. Thus, the geography of resource extraction increasingly corresponds to the distribution of their reserves. The established imbalances between mineral reserves and their extraction in the regions can serve as indicators of potential shifts in the geography of the extractive industry. The East Siberian regions and Yakutia are distinguished by the size and degree of diversity of underutilized resources.

The study assesses the risks of spatial disintegration of Colombia as an example of a Latin American state with relatively weak control of public space by the central government. Spatial disintegration in the study is understood as the process of disruption and destruction of the system-forming connections between regions, as a result of which “gray zones” may arise—territories that are not controlled by the central government. The methodology for calculating the risk of spatial disintegration of a country is based on the equivalence of seven factors: historical, socioeconomic, domestic political, ethnocultural, transport, military-strategic, and foreign policy. At the same time, the importance of each factor is determined by the proportion of the country’s population living in territorial units with high risk of disintegration according to this factor. The study revealed that almost all departments of Colombia have experience of disintegration in the past (mainly as part of numerous civil wars), later due to the activities of radical armed groups and drug cartels. It has been established that historical, socio-economic and ethnocultural factors are leading in the architecture of risks of spatial disintegration of Colombia. The overall risk of spatial disintegration in Colombia exceeds similar indicators in a number of Latin American countries to which this technique has been applied (Venezuela, Ecuador, Argentina, Chile, Mexico). At the same time, Colombia is inferior to Bolivia in terms of the risk of spatial disintegration. The number of departments in Colombia that combine high risks for 4 or more spatial disintegration factors is 12 (out of 33 administrative divisions of the 1st order). The greatest risks are noted in the departments of Chocó (a combination of 6 out of 7 possible factors), North Santander (a set of high-risk factors sharply differs from most other heterogeneous regions), as well as in the geographically remote island department of San Andres and Providencia, which is the subject of a territorial dispute with Nicaragua. There is a similarity in the spatial pattern and the structure of the risks of disintegration with the corresponding indicators of neighboring Venezuela previously calculated by the authors.

This article examines competition among Christian denominations in Ethiopian towns, based on the dynamics of intra-religious diversity calculated from national census data using the Gorokhov Index. It is shown that the ongoing intensification of competition between Christian churches is primarily driven by the increased activity of Protestant missionaries, which has become evident not only in large cities but also in medium and especially small urban settlements. According to the spatial logic of religious competition, Ethiopian regions are classified into two types: “region-led areas”—where the rise of religious competition begins in rural areas and only later affects towns, and “city-led areas”—where intensification begins in the urban centres. Due to the “lagging” nature of Ethiopia’s urbanisation and the historically strong state support for the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church (EOTC) in towns, most regions fall into the first type. Based on fieldwork conducted in the small towns of Turmi and Dimeka (South Omo Zone, Southern Ethiopia) in 2024, the article identifies spatial mechanisms underlying the transformation of the religious landscape. This transformation unfolded in three waves of Christian expansion: (1) entry of the EOTC and Catholic Church, (2) early Protestants, and (3) late Protestants. It is argued that interwave competition manifests not only in shifts of adherent’s number proportion but also in the spatial restructuring of the religious landscape—including redistribution of land, competition for symbolic dominance through the construction of worship sites, and the expansion of social missions. Heightened competition among religious organisations in urban areas has provoked better-resourced churches from the first two waves to extend their missionary outreach into rural areas. This process emerges as a key mechanism for the territorial expansion of Christianity in the region and serves as an important factor of urban growth in South Omo, as new converts—often marginalised in their home communities—relocate to towns in search of religious and social support.

The aim of the research is to integrate scientific knowledge with the justification of its position in classification and the definition of its generally significant meaning and semantic significance by means of hermeneutics. This will help us to discover new scientific laws and patterns by starting from a meta-theoretical level of generalization. The use of mathematical research methods, such as differential geometry, allows us to apply hermeneutic ideas to all fields of knowledge. This offers mathematical tools for systematic analysis and statistical data processing. In this context, geography can be seen as a quantitative form of hermeneutics that has analogues in qualitative (conceptual) and mathematical interpretations of knowledge. In all its forms, hermeneutics acts as a metageographic framework that establishes the rules for the development and formation of scientific geography. It is a set of theories, models, and methods borrowed from other disciplines to study the states and changes in spatial systems, including natural, economic, and social systems. The new classification of scientific knowledge presents a hierarchical structure, or pyramid, starting with meta-science and mathematics at the top, followed by philosophical, empirical, and mathematical hermeneutics. Geography is included as a specific case within these sectors. This includes various special system theories and conceptual and mathematical models, based on reliable data from field studies, statistical analysis, and computer calculations. This is how the entire range of geographical work is carried out, starting with the collection of primary information and its final hermeneutic interpretation in the form of knowledge maps about the current state of the geographical environment, including geographical maps of territories.

The work is devoted to the climatic anomalies of Altai and Sayan Mountains. Abnormal values pose the greatest danger to the population, infrastructure, and natural geosystems. The purpose of the article is to identify the spatiotemporal dynamics of climatic anomalies in terms of precipitation, temperature, and snow cover thickness in Southern Siberia. For this purpose, the data from 48 meteorological stations were processed using mathematical statistics methods. The anomalous and extreme values are compared for two 30-year periods: the “climatic norm” of 1961–1990 and the modern 1991–2021. As a result, the relationship between an increase in the frequency of abnormal values of these parameters and an increase in the number of floods was revealed. The most pronounced positive dynamics of the frequency of manifestations are in pentadic (5-day) anomalous with 60-mm and extreme with 100-mm precipitation limits. Temporary changes in the maximum thickness of the snow cover almost everywhere have a positive sign, which indicates an increase in the likelihood of avalanches. The study of the dynamics of abnormal and extreme indicators of the thermal regime of the territory indicates a significant increase in the role of temperature increases in the spring months in the formation of floods. Maps of the spatial distribution of these climate characteristics of various security have been obtained. Important zones of maximum precipitation distribution have been found throughout the Altai-Sayan region, with 5% of their occurrence at a dangerous level of more than 60 mm/day. The areas of distribution of the maximum snow cover capacity with indicators of more than 160 cm with a security of 5% are also highlighted. In both cases, these values are the beginning of a dangerous natural phenomenon. Data on the probabilistic structure of anomalies in precipitation, temperature, and snow cover thickness can be applied in practice to ensure safety and develop strategies for the sustainable development of the region.

Assessment of the basin and channel components of sediment runoff, determination of the values of the introduction of flushing products from meltwater and stormwater into the riverine catchment area network is an urgent topic of geographical research. In this research for the Krasnoyarsk, Kansk and Yuzhno-Minusinsk island forest-steppe regions of the Yenisei River basin a quantitative assessment of river sediment runoff, annual erosion intensity, total basin and channel erosion volumes, and their ratios for selected representative rivers is performed. Certain differences in the areas of arable land, in the plowing degree and annual erosion intensity between forest-steppe areas determine a significant difference in the average annual volume of basin erosion—from 0.5 to 43.3 Mt/year in the basins of the case-study rivers. The coefficient of sediment delivery to river channels is determined based on data of the average annual values of sediments and soil particles washed from catchments. Its value varies from 0.12–5.19%, with the maximum in the Yuzhno-Minusinsk forest-steppe. The contribution of sediments of channel origin increases in the south direction. An integrated assessment of basin and channel erosion shows that the total inflow of washout products from the entire forest-steppe zone into the Yenisei River erosion network is 26.62 Mt/year, which is comparable to the sediment runoff of the Lower Yenisei and thus indicates the significant role of erosion and channel processes in the forest-steppe zone in sediment runoff of Russia’s largest river.

The article provides an assessment of changes in the aridization and continentality of the climate in the Lower Don basin over a period of more than 60 years. Three indices were considered: Ivanov moisture coefficient, the hydrothermal coefficient of G.T. Selyaninov, the index of climate continentality according to S.P. Khromov, the calculation of which was performed for meteorological stations in the region. The trends of annual surface air temperature, relative humidity, evaporation and annual precipitation were obtained for the basic climatic periods of 1961–1990, 1991–2020 and for 1961–2024. A slight decrease in the continentality of the climate in the southeast of the region was revealed. The dynamics of the dry/wet zones area distribution was estimated by the moisture and hydrothermal coefficients for the periods under consideration. Peculiarities in the interannual distribution of such zones were noted. An increase of the dry zones area in the modern period by 6–8% was revealed. An assessment is given for one of the driest years for the period under consideration (2024). Among other driest years, 1962, 2007 and 2020 were highlighted with significant areas of poor moisture zone; and 1998 with a large part of the dry zone according to the hydrothermal coefficient. The wettest years according to both indices were 1977, 1980, 1997. According to the difference integral curves of the moisture and the hydrothermal coefficients, the periods of increasing dryness and wetness in the region was identified. Currently, the Lower Don basin is in a dry period, while there is a decrease in the continentality of the climate, associated with the predominance of warm winters in recent years.

The parent materials of most soils in the Transbaikalia region are products of the weathering of granitoids. Mafic and intermediate rocks in Transbaikalia occupy about 20% of the territory. Age, the particularities of their weathering, involvement in soil formation and lateral transport under the conditions of permafrost and deep-freezing have specific features that have greatly affect soil properties and the soil cover formation. Therefore, it is important to establish the peculiarities of soil formation on the derivatives of the main rocks in the region. Under the influence of permafrost, a study of soils on siallitic (eluvial and accumulative) weathering crusts of fine granulometric composition Cambrian metaeffusive rocks showed that Eutric Cryosols (Loamic, Luvic) are formed on eluvium in the southern Vitim Plateau mountain-taiga landscapes. It is characterized by the coarse humus accumulation, weak podzolization, lessivage and cryogenic aggregation. Humus mull is formed, calcium accumulates, and clay fraction occurs redistribution in geochemically subordinate intermountain depressions. This leads to the Eutric Chernozems Саlcaric formation with the frost cracks presence. In the northern part of the Selenga Highlands, the Jurassic basalts weathering products have a sandy-silt composition. Under cryoxerophytic steppe communities in conditions of arid climate and prolonged freezing, active accumulation of humus occurs, and at the foot, accumulation of carbonates occurs. Short-profile Skeletic Leptosols (Siltic, Humic) are formed on the eluvium, and Cryoaridic Soils with carbonate dripstone films in the lower part of the profile are formed on the adjacent plain.

By studying the morphological properties and physicochemical parameters (humus horizon thickness, organic carbon and carbonate carbon content, forms of carbonate neoformations, and gypsum content) of paleosols buried beneath burial mounds of various archaeological cultures (Pit Grave, Srubnaya, Early Iron Age, and Middle Ages), we were able to reconstruct the evolution of chernozems and chestnut soils (at the type and subtype level) in the steppe zone of the Western Orenburg region during the second half of the Holocene. A clear link was established between soil properties and atmospheric moisture during their formation. Diagnostic signs of aridization (a decrease in the thickness of the humus horizon, the occurrence of carbonate formations closer to the day surface, the presence of gypsum) and humidization of the climate (an increase in the thickness of the humus horizon and humus content, a shift of carbonate formations to a greater depth, their transition to impregnating forms, the disappearance of gypsum) were revealed. The following alternation of epochs of change in climate humidification is shown: 6000–5300 years ago an increase in climate aridization was revealed, 5300–4300 years ago the climate was characterized by milder and less contrasting conditions, 3900–3800 years ago drier climatic conditions prevailed, then humidification gradually increased up to the period 3600–3500 years ago, 2700–1600 years ago. Climatic conditions are characterized by frequent climatic fluctuations (increased aridity alternates with increased humidification and vice versa). Between 800 and 650 years ago, the climate was drier and hotter than the modern period, which gave way to more humid and mild climatic conditions between 650 and 600 years ago. Spatial distribution maps of zonal soil types and subtypes for various historical periods were compiled. The data obtained are key to understanding the genesis of the modern soil cover structure and predicting its changes under current climate change. 

This article presents the results of an assessment of the risks of exceeding maximum permissible concentrations of nitrogen dioxide in the atmospheric air of St. Petersburg based on measurement data from 16 automatic monitoring stations in 2019–2021 and their dependence on time of day and season. Nitrogen dioxide is a highly toxic substance and belongs to hazard class II. This necessitates taking into account the distribution of nitrogen dioxide concentrations in urban spatial planning. The study revealed that variations in NO₂ concentrations are determined by the interaction of several quasi-periodic processes: seasonal and diurnal variations in traffic density, changes in solar radiation intensity and associated photochemical reactions involving nitrogen dioxide, and the intensity of meteorological phenomena. The statistical distributions of NO₂ concentrations are asymmetric, and the lognormal model is the preferred approximation. The risks of exceeding the average daily threshold limit value (TLV) of nitrogen dioxide (according to Sanitary Regulations and Standards 1.2.3685-21) are in the range of 0.0–1.1%, and when using the TLV recommended by the WHO, in the range of 3–20%. The approach to assessing the risks of exceeding the TLV for nitrogen dioxide concentrations presented in this article can also be applied to analyzing the concentrations of other ecotoxicants that negatively impact public health or disrupt the urban environment.

A comprehensive assessment of the ecological status of the Ivankovskoye Reservoir (European Russia) was conducted for the 2017–2022 period, focusing on hydrochemical parameters and anthropogenic impacts. The study analyzed key water quality indicators: dissolved oxygen, pH, ammonium nitrogen, nitrites, nitrates, phosphates, BOD5, and total iron. Sampling was performed at 18 stations across four reservoir sections (Shoshinsky, Upper Volga, Middle Volga, and Lower Volga) using standardized methods (PND F). The water pollution index (WPI) was applied for integrated water quality assessment, and anthropogenic load was calculated using Frumin’s formula. Results revealed seasonal dynamics of oxygen regime: summer oxygen depletion in bottom layers (down to 1.15 mg/dm³) was linked to thermal stratification and organic matter decomposition. Exceedances of maximum permissible concentrations (MPC) were recorded for ammonium nitrogen (up to 1.5 × MPC), nitrites (up to 4.7 × MPC), BOD5 (up to 2 × MPC), and iron (up to 7.7 × MPC). The Shoshinsky section exhibited the highest pollution levels due to eutrophication and low water exchange. Average WPI values (1.16–1.33) corresponded to Class 3 water quality (moderately polluted). Key pollution sources included discharges from the Konakovskaya GRES power plant, agricultural runoff, and recreational activities. Despite the ban on industrial fishing (since 2007), no water quality improvements were observed, and anthropogenic pressure continued to rise (index 1.87 in 2021 vs. 2005–2017 data). The study emphasizes the need for enhanced measures to reduce nutrient and chemical loads, particularly under climate change and increasing anthropogenic pressure. The findings may inform water resource management strategies and ecological restoration programs for the reservoir.

Long-term annual runoff series of major rivers in the European part of Russia—the Northern Dvina, Pechora, Neva, Kuban, Don, Volga, and Terek rivers—were analyzed to identify groupings of low-water, average-water, and high-water years and to estimate the transition probabilities between these water abundance categories. The data series cover the period from the start of observations to 2015. The longest continuous record is that of the Neva River, beginning in 1859. The shortest series are those of the Pechora and Terek rivers, starting in 1925. Years with runoff exceeding the series mean by more than 5% were classified as high-water years. If the runoff was more than 5% below the mean, the year was considered low-water. Years where the runoff deviated from the mean by less than 5% (either above or below) were regarded as average-water years. A grouping within a series is defined as a continuous sequence of years belonging to the same water abundance category. The transition probability from one water abundance category to another was estimated as the ratio of the number of such transitions to the total number of years spent in the originating category. It was found that low-water spells on individual rivers last from 2 to 13 years, while high-water spells range from 2 to 10 years. For individual years, it is most likely that the same water content will continue in subsequent years.