The importance of economic factors in the emergence and existence of “de facto states” remains insufficiently studied and debatable. The article examines the case of the Republic of South Ossetia (RSO), one of the six unrecognized republics that emerged in the post-Soviet space. Based on the study of statistical data, secondary sources, and expert interviews with representatives of local authorities, business and the academic community, the authors analyze the structural shifts and the state of the economy of the RSO, views on the prospects of development in the context of state-building. It is shown that as a result of large-scale economic assistance from Russia, a structurally weak hyper-service economy has been formed, the key sectors of which depend on government demand and Russian investments. Limited economic self-sufficiency, trans-border settlement of Ossetians and Georgians, as well as numerous family ties contribute to the emergence of various cross-border practices (shuttle trade, smuggling, peculiar settlement systems) that reduce social tension. The case of the RSO confirms that the unrecognized status is not in itself a challenge for economic development. However, the lack of external legitimacy restricts access to markets, creates barriers for financial and trade transactions. As a result, Eurasian integration has become rather a source of problems for the RSO, creating obstacles that are difficult for local businesses to overcome in trade with Russia, the only EAEU country that recognizes the RSO as a sovereign state. As a result, RSO economic problems serve as a key argument for supporting the idea of the republic’s accession to Russia.

The article presents methods of municipal statistics missing data reconstruction based on indirect data in federal city’s intracity municipal district. The author used presented methods in course of Vladimirsky Okrug in St. Petersburg sociogeographical study in 2020. Using the Vladimirsky Okrug example, the author evaluates the completeness and quality of municipal statistics in St. Petersburg and concludes that local self-government bodies did not have reliable statistical data necessary for the local issues implementation. Only 8 out of 1400 indicators are continuously presented in the Indicators of Municipalities Database of Rosstat for the last decade, many are fragmentary for 1–3 years, which hinders retrospective analysis. Reconstruction is a forced step due to the lack, closeness, or incorrectness of statistical and departmental accounting data. Comparing the state and departmental statistics the author shows differences in the population accounting district up to 9% in the moment and showed multidirectional dynamics in retrospect. Statistics reconstruction allowed to clarified the population number (based on water supply accounting data), the small businesses amount and their (sectoral structure, and the motorization indicators of the population (based on tax statistics), the parking infrastructure shortage (based on field observation), and the population coverage with municipal services (through an assessment of the social infrastructure load). The author concludes that the most reliable results of the statistics reconstruction are based on a field survey and primary accounting data analysis, since they are provided by direct visual or documentary control. The article shows that the lack of municipal statistics leads to inefficiency in the local self-government bodies activities.

Respiration or emission of CO₂ from soil is the most powerful outgoing f lux of carbon in terrestrial ecosystems, which makes its accurate assessment and prediction one of the most important biospheric goals. Among the multitude of regression models evaluating soil respiration, we chose the accessible and widespread T&P (Raich-Hashimoto) model, which was applied to describe the available long-term series of observations of CO₂ emissions in ecosystems of the southern taiga and forest-steppe of the European part of Russia. The objects of the study were different local biotopes: meadow steppe, young fallow, and ash forest on typical chernozems of Kursk oblast, spruce forest, and its decay areas on sod-podzols, and peat bog soils in Novgorod oblast. According to the results of parameterization, the rates of soil respiration at 0^оC were 1.06 to 1.54 times higher than the initial values of the Reich-Hashimoto model, the power coefficients of temperature function were 1.04 to 1.41 times greater, while the coefficients of dependence on precipitation were changed in 0.87 to 0.99 times for both geographic subzones. The corrected versions of the model showed good convergence with the results of field measurements in estimates of annual respiration rates. According to the predictions, under the current rate of increase of air temperature and the current precipitation, CO₂ emissions from sod-podzols in Novgorod oblast will increase by 1.4–2.9% over 10 years, while respiration of typical chernozems in Kursk oblast will increase by 0.3–3.8%. The model shows good plasticity with respect to zonal soil types and specific ecosystems, and it is suitable for long-term forecast and retrospective analysis of annual CO₂ soil efflux.

The variability of daily surface air temperature in Russia is investigated using meteorological station data for 1970–2018. Four variability ranges are analysed: intramonthly (<30 days), interdaily (<3 days), synoptic (4– 9 days), and the range of persistent weather regimes (10–30 days). Standard deviations are estimated for the reference (1970–1999) and modern (2000–2018) climatic periods for all seasons. During the modern period, the variability of average daily surface air temperature decreases (in general by 10–20%) while the average seasonal temperature increases. The largest variability decrease (33–37%) is found in spring and autumn to the Far East and the southeastern part of European Russia. In the European North of Russia in winter and autumn, average mean seasonal temperature increased by 4–5^oС. In winter, the largest decrease of temperature variability (18–23%) in all ranges is in central and north-western regions of the European Russia. The variability increase is revealed in the southern areas of Russia. In winter, the increase is the largest (16%) in the southern regions of Siberia in the range of persistent weather regimes. In other seasons, the increase of variability is found in the interdaily variability range in the European Russia in spring (20%) and autumn (17%), and the East Siberia in summer (14%). In general, there is a prevailing tendency towards a decrease of intramonthly surface air temperature variability in Russia for the last 50 years.

The study’s results of the climatic signal with a radial growth of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) on automorphic and hydromorphic soils of the European North-East of Russia (Komi Republic) are presented. Wood samples (cores and cuts) were taken from seven sites located in different subzones of the taiga. Based on these samples, tree-ring chronologies of pine were built, and the relationship between growth and climatic parameters (air temperature, climatic precipitation) was revealed. According to instrumental meteorological observations, in the study area, since the beginning of the 70s of the 20th century, there has been a tendency to an increase in air temperature and the amount of precipitation. In the latitudinal and longitudinal gradients, these indicators are manifested unequally. Analysis of the relationship between climate and growth showed that the main factor providing pine growth in the northern taiga subzone and in the Northern Urals is the temperature in May, and in the middle and southern taiga subzone—in July. In the pine forests of the extremely northern taiga, a reliable negative relationship was found between the width of tree rings and precipitation in May and July. An analysis of the correlation of pine growth indices with average monthly temperatures and the precipitation amount in a floating window in the range of 25 years showed an unstable signal for the growing season. It is noted that over the past 30 years in the European Northeast, there has been a weakening of the climatic signal with wood radial growth. The correlation of the relationship between indexed pine chronologies with sliding fifteen-day values of climatic indicators showed positive relationship between radial growth and air temperature. However, this relationship became insignificant in the middle and southern taiga at the beginning of the growing season. On the contrary, these values are replaced by precipitation. But, such a feature is not manifested in the subzones of the extreme and northern taiga. Here, to a greater extent, the only air temperature has a positive effect on pine growth.

Multiproxy study of the sections of mares in the Bolshaya Ussurka River Basin allowed highlighting climate changes over the past 2900 years. Reconstructions are based on data on botanical, diatoms, and pollen analyses and radiocarbon dating. Moisture content changed most significantly. The periods of prolonged droughts, which coincided with the weakening of the summer monsoon, were established. A long dry period began about 2900 yr BP and continued up to 1360 yr BP. Dry conditions did not exclude f loods caused by strong rainfall caused by the passage of typhoons or deep cyclones. The Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age were humid and characterized by increased cyclogenesis. Short-term f luctuations in humidity were noted: droughts were about 530–460 yr BP, conditions became more humid about 400 yr BP and especially about 330–260 yr BP. The age ranges of periods with different flood activity and fires are determined. Correlation of events with data on the regional and global events is carried out. A different response of mountain and bog landscapes to short-period climatic changes has been established. In forest vegetation, the role of Korean pine changed significantly, the distribution of which controlled by changes in hydroclimatic conditions. Optimum environments for Korean pine forests’ development were 780–530 yr BP. Role of Korean pine decreased during dry phases and after fires. The most variable vegetation of the mares was during the Little Ice Age. Modern anthropogenic changes in landscapes are also recorded in the sections. Scale of floods has significantly increased under human impact.

Climatic conditions affect the population both directly—through its health, morbidity, and mortality, and indirectly—through living conditions, and this impact is extremely heterogeneous. In the work, the ranking of climatic factors according to the closeness of the connection with demographic, social and economic indicators was carried out using correlation, regression, and variance analysis at the territorial level of the regions— subjects of the Russian Federation for the period 1995–2017. It is shown that climatic factors can be used to describe from 21 to 52% of the variance of the considered indicators, averaged over the study period for the regions of the Russian Federation. For the migration rate, the most important predictors are the duration of the heating season, day-to-day temperature drops >|6|^oC and the sum of temperatures below 0^oC. The dependence of the overall morbidity on climatic factors is described by 42%. The contribution to the regression of such climatic factors as a pressure rms deviation, duration of the heating period, and day-to-day temperature drops >|6|^oC is the most significant. Climatic factors such as the duration of the heating season, the duration of the frost-free period, the sum of active temperatures make the greatest contribution to the dispersion of the gross regional product.

The article deals with vegetation cover of abandoned agricultural lands in forest-steppe natural zone within the Central Chernozem Region of Russia and Oryol oblast. The study was carried out using remote sensing data. Using data are gathered from 1115 areas, it was found that reforestation processes take place on more than 90% of abandoned lands. The current forest cover on abandoned agricultural lands differs significantly within the region, from 80–90% in the northwest to 5–10% in the southeast. On abandoned lands, grassy vegetation dominates, and the forests are the most widespread in the region. Deciduous forests occur on abandoned arable lands on the whole part of the Central Chernozem Region. Areas are covered by coniferous and mixed forests are less widespread. The mean current forest cover of abandoned lands reaches 34.1%. Forest cover of abandoned lands with deciduous species is significantly lower than it is observed on the abandoned agricultural lands where coniferous species grow. The average forest cover of abandoned agricultural lands with deciduous tree species are 34%, abandoned lands with mixed forests is 41%, areas with coniferous tree species is 48%. The highest variation in forest cover was found on abandoned lands with deciduous species. The most numerous categories of abandoned agricultural lands are areas where forest cover is about 20%. Abandoned agricultural lands with 0–40% forest cover are the most widespread in the forest-steppe zone within the Central Chernozem Region and Oryol oblast. Abandoned agricultural lands where forest covers more than 60% are placed mainly in the subzone of the northern forest-steppe, in the north-west areas of the region. These territories are bordering the forest zone.

Within the framework of the TEEB-Russia project methodological approaches have already been developed and, partly, an information base has been created for assessing ecosystem services at the Russian federal subjects’ level, but the large federal subjects’ area and their geographical heterogeneity determine the need for such work at the municipal level. The article discusses the methodology and results of the assessment of ecosystem services on the example of 4 rural municipal districts with different natural conditions and types of economy (Kiznersky district of the Udmurt Republic, Yelizovsky district of Kamchatka krai, Maykopsky district of the Republic of Adygea, and Bobrovsky district of Voronezh oblast). The evaluation algorithm is focused on the use of publicly available geospatial data, open thematic data, municipal statistics, as well as literary and stock data. The evaluation procedure includes: (1) analysis and mapping of the main types of ecosystems; (2) calculation of the proposed (potential) volume of productive, environmental and recreational services in natural science indicators; (3) calculation of the volume of these services used (depends on the population and consumption pattern); (4) analysis of the relationship between them. The low exploitation rate of certain types of production services was noted in all districts, however, the reasons for this situation are different in each of them, and a number of services require adjustment of the calculation methodology. In terms of the volume of runoff accumulation services by terrestrial ecosystems, the maximum indicators were noted in the Yelizovsky and Maykopsky districts, however, signs of its deficiency have already been noted in the latter. The calculation of the volume of recreational services used can be unified to the least extent and cannot be carried out with the existing information base for each municipal district. Based on the results of the work, methodological difficulties were identified in the transition from the regional level of calculation to the municipal level of calculation, difficulties and prospects for integrating the value of ecosystem services into strategic and territorial planning documents were identified, priorities for assessing ecosystem services for different types of territories were proposed.

The article evaluates and analyzes the integral export and resource potential of the territories adjacent to the Baikal-Amur Mainline (BAM-zone), according to three subpotentials: mineral resource, forest resource and energy resource. An overview of the main studies of the socioeconomic development of the BAM-zone and the role of the highway in the development of the territories of Siberia and the Far East is given. Mathematical-statistical, cartographic and field methods were used during the study. Based on the assumption that the natural resources are fully exported, the reasons for the differences in the assessment of the export-resource potential and its implementation for individual sections of the BAM are determined. The mineral resource subpotential is realized point-by-point mainly in the western sections of the BAM. The largest deposits, located in the middle and eastern regions of the BAM, remain underutilized due to infrastructural undevelopment. It is expected that the potential of the eastern regions will be realized faster due to the proximity of the Far Eastern seaports and the export orientation of the mining industry against the background of favorable global market conditions. The value of the realization of the forest-resource subpotential is also higher for the western part of the BAM-zone, for the middle areas of the zone it is limited by the predominance of less valuable larch forests, and for the eastern regions–China’s demand for round timber. The implementation of the energy-resource subpotential is possible only for one region in the BAM-zone–Amur oblast. It is noted that the western regions of the BAM-zone, to a greater extent than the eastern regions, realize both forest-resource and mineral-resource subpotentials. The most promising resources for export are oil and gas, lumber for the western regions of the BAM-zone, iron ore, gold for the middle regions of BAM, coal, gold, lumber for the eastern regions of BAM.

The article considers the main stages of settling and economic development of the Kulikovo field area starting from the 12th century on the case of a site typical in landscape and geomorphological terms. A retrospective analysis of the material characterized lands’ orientation and territorial organization at each stage was carried out. Data are given on the degree of anthropogenic transformation of the original landscape structure at various stages of settling and economic development of the territory. The first, Old Russian period (12th–14th centuries) and the next late medieval period (16th–17th centuries) are characterized by a weak degree of anthropogenic transformation. Agriculture used no more than 30% of the original forest area. Anthropogenic complexes consisted of long-term arable land and the settlements’ territory. Forest edges and abandoned arable lands were used for pastures and hayfields. During the new stage (17th–the end of the 19th centuries), the expansion of arable land is carried out at the expense of deforestation, as in the previous stage. The reason is the use of extensive agronomic technologies. In the second half of the 18th century, the degree of anthropogenic transformation has become strong. More than 50% of the forest area has been cut down. Agricultural plots (perennial arable lands, hay, and pasture lands) appeared on the site of the cut down forest. By the end of the 19th century, forests occupy less than 10% of the territory and are represented by secondary or restored forests. The degree of anthropogenic transformation becomes very strong. Agricultural land, together with settlements, covers more than 90% of the territory. These are arable lands, hayfields, and pastures that have existed at certain geomorphological levels for centuries. Thus, by the beginning of the 20th century, there was a radical restructuring of the original natural landscape structure. On the watershed of the Don and Mokraya Tabola rivers, an agricultural landscape of the modern type was formed.

The results of the fight against coronavirus are taken as indicators of the viability of states. According to the data on the number of patients and deaths per 1 million persons, there are inter-ethnic differences in success in the fight against coronavirus. It has been demonstrated that the pandemic exacerbates intercountry and intercivilizational differences and accentuates the human and social importance of geography. The impact of the pandemic on tourism is being studied. By giving primacy to national and social interests over global and economic pandemics, intangible goods have been given priority. The importance of the accelerated development of the digital economy in boosting rural tourism and dacha de-urbanization as a recreational response of the population to the pandemic was discussed. They have been suggested to be important in creating preconditions for the rehabilitation of abandoned villages. The coronavirus pandemic reinforces the importance of secluded landscapes’ walks, local history, and rural tourism. The preventive value of landscape therapy was set. Landscape healing powers can be used almost all the time and almost everywhere, both in a fixed location and in a travel environment. The laws of nature are the laws of beauty. It is assumed that all places perceived as beautiful can heal. The article introduces the idea of the beauty of the landscape as an important natural and health resource. It is assumed that by trusting one’s feelings, experience, and intuition, one can discover for oneself the healing power of a particular landscape. Landscape therapy integrates geography, medicine, and human science. The pandemic serves to reorient geography and ecology from the transformation and protection of nature to the transformation and rescue of man.